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| − | [[File: raevirnobility.JPG|thumb|250px|A Felsenite Scholar's Representation of Raevir Aristocracy, during the Third Empire]] | + | [[File: raevirnobility.jpg|thumb|250px|A Felsenite Scholar's Representation of Raevir Aristocracy of Kralta]] |
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| − | The '''Raevir''' ([[Raev]]: ''Raevir''; [[Common]]: Raevir }}; [[High Imperial]]: Raevi; Savoyard: Raeve}}) were an offshoot from the original tribes of Harren, the son of [[Horen]], who rose to signifgance first during the continent of Anthos, beneath the Horen Dynasty. The culture is defined by the ideals of feudalism, the peasant ([[Raev]]: Strelt), and their counterparts of aristocratic status. The raev found unity following the turbulent Elk Wars; under the leadership of of Karol the Raven, who bore the Boyar's Cap as Prince of Raev. This ethnic group would eventually find dominance in humanity, outnumbering the heartland population during the Third Empire; under the Holy Orenian Emperor Tobias I Carrion. Later, it would decline and suffer from the 'Raevir Genocide' perpetrated by the culture's many opponents.
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| − | The [[House Carrion|Carrionic Vochna]] had a major political, cultural and military impact on [[Humans|Humanity]] and even the rest of the Known World. They heralded their legacy in Orenian Politics as the seemingly simple people of the Kraltan March. However, later as Apostolic Kings of Ruska, the culture found its purpose as the unifiers of humanity, under Exalted Siegmund I, following The Exodus.
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| − | The legacy of the Normans persists today through the [[Norman language#Geographical distribution|regional languages and dialects]] of France, England, and Sicily, as well as the various cultural, judicial and political arrangements they introduced in their conquered territories.<ref name="Impact"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/hudson_norman_01.shtml|title=What Did the Normans Do for Us?|work=John Hudson|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=12 February 2012|accessdate=31 July 2015}}</ref>
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| − | ==Etymology==
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| − | ==Characteristics and traits==
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| − | The 11th century [[Order of Saint Benedict|Benedictine monk]] and [[historian]], [[Goffredo Malaterra]], characterised the Normans thus:
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| − | {{Quote|Specially marked by cunning, despising their own inheritance in the hope of winning a greater, eager after both gain and dominion, given to imitation of all kinds, holding a certain mean between lavishness and greediness, that is, perhaps uniting, as they certainly did, these two seemingly opposite qualities. Their chief men were specially lavish through their desire of good report. They were, moreover, a race skillful in flattery, given to the study of eloquence, so that the very boys were orators, a race altogether unbridled unless held firmly down by the yoke of justice. They were enduring of toil, hunger, and cold whenever fortune laid it on them, given to hunting and hawking, delighting in the pleasure of horses, and of all the weapons and [[Clothing|garb]] of war.{{Sfn | Gunn | 1975}}}}
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| − | ==Settling of Normandy==
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| − | {{See also|Duchy of Normandy|Rollo|William I Longsword|Richard the Fearless}}
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| − | [[File:History of the Normans by Dudo of Saint-Quentin.jpg|thumb|10th–11th century ''History of the Normans'', by [[Dudo of Saint-Quentin]]]]
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| − | In the course of the 10th century, the initially destructive incursions of [[Norsemen|Norse]] war bands into the rivers of [[France]] evolved into more permanent encampments that included local women and personal property.<ref name=Bates20>Bates ''Normandy Before 1066'' pp. 20–21</ref> The [[Duchy of Normandy]], which began in 911 as a [[fiefdom]], was established by the [[treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte]] between [[Charles the Simple|King Charles III]] of [[West Francia]] and the famed [[Viking]] ruler [[Rollo]], and was situated in the former Frankish kingdom of [[Neustria]].<ref name="Epte">{{Citation | last = Neveux | first = François | title = The Normans | page = 5 | publisher = Constable & Robinson | others = Curtis, Howard transl | year = 2008}}</ref> The treaty offered Rollo and his men the French lands between the river [[Epte]] and the [[Atlantic coast]] in exchange for their protection against further Viking incursions.<ref name="Epte"/> The area corresponded to the northern part of present-day [[Upper Normandy]] down to the river [[Seine]], but the Duchy would eventually extend west beyond the Seine.<ref name="Norman"/> The territory was roughly equivalent to the old province of [[Rouen]], and reproduced the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] administrative structure of ''Gallia Lugdunensis II'' (part of the former ''[[Gallia Lugdunensis]]'').
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| − | Before Rollo's arrival, its populations did not differ from [[Picardy]] or the [[Île-de-France]], which were considered "Frankish". Earlier Viking settlers had begun arriving in the 880s, but were divided between colonies in the east ([[Roumois]] and [[Pays de Caux]]) around the low Seine valley and in the west in the [[Cotentin Peninsula]], and were separated by traditional ''[[Pagus|pagii]]'', where the population remained about the same with almost no foreign settlers. Rollo's contingents who raided and ultimately settled Normandy and parts of the Atlantic coast included [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danes]], [[Norwegians]], [[Norse–Gaels]], [[Orkney|Orkney Vikings]], possibly [[Swedes]], and Anglo-Danes from the English [[Danelaw]] under Norse control.
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| − | The descendants of Rollo's Vikings and their [[Franks|Frankish]] wives would replace the [[Norse religion]] and [[Old Norse]] language with [[Catholicism]] ([[Christianity]]) and the [[Gallo-Romance language]] of the local people, blending their maternal Frankish heritage with Old Norse traditions and customs to synthesize a unique "Norman" culture in the north of France.<ref name="searle" /> The [[Norman language]] was forged by the adoption of the indigenous ''[[Langues d'oïl|langue d'oïl]]'' branch of [[Romance languages|Romance]] by a Norse-speaking ruling class, and it developed into the [[Languages of France|regional language]] that survives today.<ref name="Norman" />
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| − | The Normans thereafter adopted the growing [[feudalism|feudal]] doctrines of the rest of France, and worked them into a functional hierarchical system in both [[Normandy]] and in [[Norman England|England]].<ref name="searle"/> The new Norman rulers were culturally and ethnically distinct from the old [[French nobility|French aristocracy]], most of whom traced their lineage to Franks of the [[Carolingian dynasty]]. Most Norman knights remained poor and land-hungry, and by 1066 Normandy had been exporting fighting horsemen for more than a generation. Many Normans of [[Italy]], France and England eventually served as avid [[Crusades|Crusader]]s under the [[Italo-Norman]] prince [[Bohemund I of Antioch|Bohemund I]] and the [[Anglo-Norman]] king [[Richard the Lion-Heart]].
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| − | ==Conquests and military offensives==
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| − | ===Italy===
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| − | {{See also|Norman conquest of southern Italy|Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture|Robert Guiscard|Italo-Norman}}
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| − | [[File:Adrano normannisches Kastell.jpg|thumb|250px|The early Norman castle at [[Adrano]]]]
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| − | Opportunistic bands of Normans successfully established a foothold in [[Southern Italy]]. Probably as the result of returning pilgrims' stories, the Normans entered Southern Italy as warriors in 1017 at the latest. In 999, according to [[Amatus of Montecassino]], Norman pilgrims returning from [[Jerusalem]] called in at the port of [[Salerno]] when a [[Saracen]] attack occurred. The Normans fought so valiantly that Prince [[Guaimar III of Salerno|Guaimar III]] begged them to stay, but they refused and instead offered to tell others back home of the prince's request. [[William of Apulia]] tells that, in 1016, Norman pilgrims to the shrine of the [[Michael (archangel)|Archangel Michael]] at [[Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo|Monte Gargano]] were met by [[Melus of Bari]], a [[Lombards|Lombard]] nobleman and rebel, who persuaded them to return with more warriors to help throw off the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] rule, which they did.
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| − | The two most prominent Norman families to arrive in the [[Mediterranean]] were descendants of [[Tancred of Hauteville]] and the [[Drengot family]], of whom [[Rainulf Drengot]] received the county of [[Aversa]], the first Norman toehold in the south, from Duke [[Sergius IV of Naples]] in 1030. The [[Hauteville family]] achieved princely rank by proclaiming prince [[Guaimar IV of Salerno]] "Duke of [[Apulia]] and [[Calabria]]". He promptly awarded their elected leader, [[William Iron Arm]], with the title of count in his capital of [[Melfi]]. The Drengot family thereafter attained the [[principality of Capua]], and emperor [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]] legally ennobled the Hauteville leader, [[Drogo of Hauteville|Drogo]], as "''dux et magister Italiae comesque Normannorum totius Apuliae et Calabriae''" ("''Duke and Master of Italy and Count of the Normans of all Apulia and Calabria''") in 1047.
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| − | From these bases, the Normans eventually captured [[Sicily]] and [[Malta]] from the Saracens, under the leadership of the famous [[Robert Guiscard]], a Hauteville, and his younger brother [[Roger I of Sicily|Roger the Great Count]]. Roger's son, [[Roger II of Sicily]], was crowned king in 1130 (exactly one century after Rainulf was "crowned" count) by [[Antipope Anacletus II]]. The [[Kingdom of Sicily]] lasted until 1194, when it was transferred to the [[House of Hohenstaufen]] through marriage.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCX660FA5wMC&pg=PA793 |title=The common law abroad: constitutional and legal legacy of the British empire |first=Jerry |last=Dupont |publisher=Wm. S. Hein Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8377-3125-4 |page=793}}</ref> The Normans left their legacy in many castles, such as [[William Iron Arm]]'s citadel at [[Squillace]], and cathedrals, such as Roger II's [[Cappella Palatina]] at [[Palermo]], which dot the landscape and give a wholly distinct architectural flavor to accompany its unique history.
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| − | Institutionally, the Normans combined the administrative machinery of the Byzantines, Arabs, and Lombards with their own conceptions of [[feudal law]] and order to forge a unique government. Under this state, there was great religious freedom, and alongside the Norman nobles existed a meritocratic bureaucracy of [[Jews]], [[Muslim]]s and Christians, both [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]. The Kingdom of Sicily thus became characterized by Norman, Byzantine Greek, Arab, Lombard and "native" Sicilian populations living in harmony, and its [[List of monarchs of Sicily#Kings of Sicily|Norman rulers]] fostered plans of establishing an Empire that would have encompassed [[Fatimid]] [[Egypt]] as well as the [[Crusader states]] in the [[Levant]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9377080/Roger-II |title=Roger II — Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Concise.britannica.com |date= |accessdate=2010-01-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE1D61331F935A15757C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 |title=Tracing The Norman Rulers of Sicily |publisher=New York Times |date=1987-04-26 |accessdate=2010-01-21 | first=Louis | last=Inturrisi}}</ref><ref>''Les Normands en Sicile'', p. 17.</ref> One of the great geographical treatises of the [[Middle Ages]], the "''[[Tabula Rogeriana]]''", was written by the [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] [[al-Idrisi]] for king Roger II of Sicily, and entitled "''Kitab Rudjdjar''" ("''The Book of Roger''").<ref name="Lewis, p.148">Lewis, p.148</ref>
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| − | ===Byzantium===
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| − | {{See also|Byzantine-Norman wars|Varangian Guard|William Iron Arm}}
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| − | {{refimprove section|date=December 2012}}
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| − | {{context|section|date=December 2012}}
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| − | Soon after the Normans began to enter Italy, they entered the [[Byzantine Empire]] and then [[Medieval Armenia|Armenia]], fighting against the [[Pechenegs]], the [[Bulgars]], and especially the [[Seljuk Turks]]. Norman mercenaries were first encouraged to come to the south by the Lombards to act against the Byzantines, but they soon fought in Byzantine service in Sicily. They were prominent alongside [[Varangian]] and Lombard contingents in the Sicilian campaign of [[George Maniaces]] in 1038–40. There is debate whether the Normans in Greek service actually were from Norman Italy, and it now seems likely only a few came from there. It is also unknown how many of the "Franks", as the Byzantines called them, were Normans and not other Frenchmen.
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| − | [[File:Normannen.png|250px|thumb|Norman expansion by 1130]]
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| − | One of the first Norman mercenaries to serve as a Byzantine general was [[Hervé (Norman)|Hervé]] in the 1050s. By then however, there were already Norman mercenaries serving as far away as [[Trabzon|Trebizond]] and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. They were based at [[Malatya]] and [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], under the Byzantine duke of [[Antioch]], [[Isaac Komnenos, Duke of Antioch|Isaac Komnenos]]. In the 1060s, [[Robert Crispin]] led the Normans of Edessa against the Turks. [[Roussel de Bailleul]] even tried to carve out an independent state in [[Asia Minor]] with support from the local population, but he was stopped by the Byzantine general [[Alexius I Komnenos|Alexius Komnenos]].
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| − | Some Normans joined Turkish forces to aid in the destruction of the Armenians vassal-states of [[Sassoun]] and [[Taron (historic Armenia)|Taron]] in far eastern [[Anatolia]]. Later, many took up service with the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Armenian state further south in Cilicia]] and the [[Taurus Mountains]]. A Norman named [[Oursel]] led a force of "Franks" into the upper [[Euphrates]] valley in northern [[Syria]]. From 1073 to 1074, 8,000 of the 20,000 troops of the Armenian general [[Philaretus Brachamius]] were Normans—formerly of Oursel—led by [[Raimbaud]]. They even lent their ethnicity to the name of their castle: Afranji, meaning "Franks." The known trade between [[Republic of Amalfi|Amalfi]] and Antioch and between [[Bari]] and [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]] may be related to the presence of Italo-Normans in those cities while Amalfi and Bari were under Norman rule in Italy.
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| − | Several families of Byzantine Greece were of Norman mercenary origin during the period of the [[Comnenian Restoration]], when Byzantine emperors were seeking out western European warriors. The Raoulii were descended from an Italo-Norman named Raoul, the Petraliphae were descended from a Pierre d'Aulps, and that group of [[Albania]]n clans known as the Maniakates were descended from Normans who served under [[George Maniaces]] in the Sicilian expedition of 1038.
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| − | [[Robert Guiscard]], an other Norman adventurer previously elevated to the dignity of count of [[Apulia]] as the result of his military successes, ultimately drove the Byzantines out of southern [[Italy]]. Having obtained the consent of [[pope Gregory VII]] and acting as his vassal, Robert continued his campaign conquering the Balkan peninsula as a foothold for western feudal lords and the Catholic Church. After allying himself with Croatia and the Catholic cities of Dalmatia, in 1081 he led an army of 30,000 men in 300 ships landing on the southern shores of [[Albania]], capturing [[Vlora|Valona]], [[Kaninë|Kanina]], Jericho ([[Orikumi]]), and reaching [[Butrint]] after numerous pillages. They joined the fleet that had previously conquered [[Corfu]] and attacked [[Dyrrachium]] from land and sea, devastating everything along the way. Under these harsh circumstances, the locals accepted the call of Emperor [[Alexius I Comnenus]] to join forces with the Byzantines against the Normans. The [[Albania]]n forces could not take part in the ensuing [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|battle]] because it had started before their arrival. Immediately before the battle, the Venetian fleet had secured a victory in the coast surrounding the city. Forced to retreat, Alexius ceded the city of Dyrrachium to the [[Count of the Tent]] (or Byzantine provincial administrators) mobilizing from [[Arbanon]] (i.e., ἐξ Ἀρβάνων ὁρμωμένω Κομισκόρτη; the term ''Κομισκόρτη'' is short for κόμης της κόρτης meaning "Count of the Tent").<ref>[[Anna Comnena]]. ''The Alexiad'', 4.8; {{harvnb|Vranousi|1962|pp=5–26}}.</ref> The city's garrison resisted until February 1082, when Dyrrachium was betrayed to the Normans by the Venetian and [[Amalfi]]tan merchants who had settled there. The Normans were now free to penetrate into the hinterland; they took Ioannina and some minor cities in southwestern Macedonia and Thessaly before appearing at the gates of Thessalonica. Dissension among the high ranks coerced the Normans to retreat to Italy. They lost Dyrrachium, Valona, and [[Butrint]] in 1085, after the death of Robert.
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| − | A few years after the [[First Crusade]], in 1107, the Normans under the command of Bohemond, Robert's son, landed in Valona and besieged Dyrrachium using the most sophisticated military equipment of the time, but to no avail. Meanwhile, they occupied [[Petrela]], the citadel of Mili at the banks of the river [[Devoll (river)|Deabolis]], Gllavenica (Ballsh), Kanina and Jericho. This time, the Albanians sided with the Normans, dissatisfied by the heavy taxes the Byzantines had imposed upon them. With their help, the Normans secured the [[Arbanon]] passes and opened their way to Dibra. The lack of supplies, disease and Byzantine resistance forced Bohemond to retreat from his campaign and sign a peace treaty with the Byzantines in the city of Deabolis.
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| − | The further decline of Byzantine state-of-affairs paved the road to a third attack in 1185, when a large Norman army invaded [[Dyrrachium]], owing to the betrayal of high Byzantine officials. Some time later, Dyrrachium—one of the most important naval bases of the [[Adriatic]]—fell again to Byzantine hands.
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| − | ===England===
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| − | {{See also|Norman conquest of England|William the Conqueror|Domesday Book|Anglo-Normans}}
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| − | {{House of Normandy}}
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| − | The Normans were in contact with England from an early date. Not only were their original Viking brethren still ravaging the English coasts, they occupied most of the important ports opposite England across the [[English Channel]]. This relationship eventually produced closer ties of blood through the marriage of [[Emma of Normandy|Emma]], sister of Duke [[Richard II of Normandy]], and King [[Ethelred II of England]]. Because of this, Ethelred fled to Normandy in 1013, when he was forced from his kingdom by [[Sweyn Forkbeard]]. His stay in Normandy (until 1016) influenced him and his sons by Emma, who stayed in Normandy after [[Cnut the Great]]'s conquest of the isle.
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| − | When finally [[Edward the Confessor]] returned from his father's refuge in 1041, at the invitation of his half-brother [[Harthacnut]], he brought with him a Norman-educated mind. He also brought many Norman counsellors and fighters, some of whom established an English cavalry force. This concept never really took root, but it is a typical example of the attitudes of Edward. He appointed [[Robert of Jumièges]] [[archbishop of Canterbury]] and made [[Ralph the Timid]] [[earl of Hereford]]. He invited his brother-in-law [[Eustace II, Count of Boulogne]] to his court in 1051, an event which resulted in the greatest of early conflicts between Saxon and Norman and ultimately resulted in the exile of Earl [[Godwin of Wessex]].
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| − | [[File:Bayeux Tapestry scene19 detail Castle Dinan.jpg|250px|left|thumb|Siege of a [[motte-and-bailey]] castle from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]]]]
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| − | In 1066, [[William the Conqueror|Duke William II of Normandy]] conquered England killing [[King Harold II]] at the [[Battle of Hastings]]. The invading Normans and their descendants replaced the [[Anglo-Saxons]] as the ruling class of England. The nobility of England were part of a single Norman culture and many had lands on both sides of the channel. Early Norman kings of England, as Dukes of Normandy, owed homage to the King of France for their land on the continent. They considered England to be their most important holding (it brought with it the title of King—an important status symbol).
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| − | Eventually, the Normans merged with the natives, combining languages and traditions. In the course of the [[Hundred Years' War]], the Norman aristocracy often identified themselves as English. The [[Anglo-Norman language]] became distinct from the [[Latin language]], something that was the subject of some humour by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]. The Anglo-Norman language was eventually absorbed into the Anglo-Saxon language of their subjects (see [[Old English]]) and influenced it, helping (along with the [[Norse language]] of the earlier [[Danelaw|Anglo-Norse]] settlers and the [[Ecclesiastical Latin|Latin]] used by the church) in the development of [[Middle English]]. It in turn evolved into [[Modern English]].
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| − | ===Ireland===
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| − | {{See also|Norman invasion of Ireland|Norman Ireland|Hiberno-Norman}}
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| − | [[File:Trim Castle.jpg|thumb|250px|Norman keep in [[Trim, County Meath]]]]
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| − | The Normans had a profound effect on Irish culture and history after their invasion at [[Bannow Bay]] in 1169. Initially the Normans maintained a distinct culture and ethnicity. Yet, with time, they came to be subsumed into Irish culture to the point that it has been said that they became "[[More Irish than the Irish themselves (slogan)|more Irish than the Irish themselves]]." The Normans settled mostly in an area in the east of [[Ireland]], later known as [[the Pale]], and also built many fine castles and settlements, including [[Trim Castle]] and [[Dublin Castle]]. Both cultures intermixed, borrowing from each other's language, culture and outlook. Norman descendants today can be recognised by their [[surnames]]. Names such as French, (De) Roche, Devereux, D'Arcy, Treacy and Lacy are particularly common in the southeast of Ireland, especially in the southern part of County [[Wexford]] where the first Norman settlements were established. Other Norman names such as Furlong predominate there. Another common Norman-Irish name was Morell (Murrell) derived from the French Norman name Morel. Other names beginning with Fitz (from the Norman for son) indicate Norman ancestry. These included [[FitzGerald dynasty|Fitzgerald]], FitzGibbons (Gibbons) dynasty, [[Fitzmaurice]]. Other families bearing such surnames as [[Barry (name)|Barry (de Barra)]] and [[House of Burke|De Búrca (Burke)]] are also of Norman extraction.
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| − | ===Scotland===
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| − | {{See also|Scotland in the High Middle Ages|Scoto-Norman}}
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| − | One of the claimants of the English throne opposing [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]], [[Edgar Atheling]], eventually fled to Scotland. King [[Malcolm III of Scotland]] married Edgar's sister [[Saint Margaret of Scotland|Margaret]], and came into opposition to William who had already disputed Scotland's southern borders. William invaded Scotland in 1072, riding as far as [[Abernethy, Perth and Kinross|Abernethy]] where he met up with his fleet of ships. Malcolm submitted, paid homage to William and surrendered his son [[Duncan II of Scotland|Duncan]] as a hostage, beginning a series of arguments as to whether the Scottish Crown owed allegiance to the King of England.
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| − | Normans went into Scotland, building castles and founding noble families who would provide some future kings, such as [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert the Bruce]], as well as founding a considerable number of the [[Scottish clan]]s. King [[David I of Scotland]], whose elder brother [[Alexander I of Scotland|Alexander I]] had married [[Sybilla of Normandy]], was instrumental in introducing Normans and Norman culture to [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]], part of the process some scholars call the "[[Davidian Revolution]]". Having spent time at the court of [[Henry I of England]] (married to David's sister [[Edith of Scotland|Maud of Scotland]]), and needing them to wrestle the kingdom from his half-brother [[Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair]], David had to reward many with lands. The process was continued under David's successors, most intensely of all under [[William I of Scotland|William the Lion]]. The Norman-derived [[feudal]] system was applied in varying degrees to most of Scotland. Scottish families of the names Bruce, [[Gray (surname)|Gray]], Ramsay, Fraser, Ogilvie, Montgomery, Sinclair, Pollock, Burnard, Douglas and [[Gordon (surname)|Gordon]] to name but a few, and including the later royal [[House of Stewart]], can all be traced back to Norman ancestry.
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| − | ===Wales===
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| − | {{See also|Norman invasion of Wales|Cambro-Norman}}
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| − | [[File:Mms chepstow castle from river wye.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Chepstow Castle]] in Wales, built by [[William fitzOsbern]] in 1067]]
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| − | Even before the Norman Conquest of England, the Normans had come into contact with [[Wales]]. Edward the Confessor had set up the aforementioned Ralph as earl of Hereford and charged him with defending the [[Welsh Marches|Marches]] and warring with the Welsh. In these original ventures, the Normans failed to make any headway into Wales.
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| − | Subsequent to the Conquest, however, the Marches came completely under the dominance of William's most trusted Norman barons, including [[Bernard de Neufmarché]], [[Roger de Montgomerie, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury|Roger of Montgomery]] in [[Shropshire]] and [[Hugh, 1st Earl of Chester|Hugh Lupus]] in [[Cheshire]]. These Normans began a long period of slow conquest during which almost all of Wales was at some point subject to Norman interference. Norman words, such as ''baron'' (''barwn''), first entered [[Welsh language|Welsh]] at that time.
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| − | ===On crusade===
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| − | {{See also|Principality of Antioch|Bohemund I of Antioch|Richard the Lion-Heart}}
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| − | The legendary religious zeal of the Normans was exercised in religious wars long before the [[First Crusade]] carved out a Norman [[Principality of Antioch|principality in Antioch]]. They were major foreign participants in the [[Reconquista]] in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]]. In 1018, [[Roger I of Tosny|Roger de Tosny]] travelled to the Iberian Peninsula to carve out a state for himself from [[Moorish]] lands, but failed. In 1064, during the [[War of Barbastro]], [[William of Montreuil]] led the papal army and took a huge booty.
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| − | In 1096, Crusaders passing by the siege of [[Amalfi]] were joined by [[Bohemund I of Antioch|Bohemond of Taranto]] and his nephew [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]] with an army of Italo-Normans. Bohemond was the ''de facto'' leader of the Crusade during its passage through [[Asia Minor]]. After the successful [[Siege of Antioch]] in 1097, Bohemond began carving out an independent principality around that city. Tancred was instrumental in the conquest of [[Jerusalem]] and he worked for the expansion of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Crusader kingdom]] in [[Oultrejordain|Transjordan]] and the region of [[Galilee]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}
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| − | ===Anglo-Norman conquest of Cyprus===
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| − | {{See also|Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus in the Middle Ages}}[[File:Lusignan.jpg|thumb|250px|Illuminated manuscript showing king [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lion-hearted]] authorizing [[Guy de Lusignan]] to take [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus]]]]
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| − | The conquest of [[Cyprus]] by the [[Anglo-Norman]] forces of the [[Third Crusade]] opened a new chapter in the history of the island, which would be under [[Western Europe]]an domination for the following 380 years. Although not part of a planned operation, the conquest had much more permanent results than initially expected.
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| − | In April 1191 [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lion-hearted]] left [[Messina]] with a large fleet in order to reach [[Acre (city)|Acre]].{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 131}} But a storm dispersed the fleet. After some searching, it was discovered that the boat carrying his sister and his fiancée Berengaria was anchored on the south coast of Cyprus, together with the wrecks of several other ships, including the treasure ship. Survivors of the wrecks had been taken prisoner by the island's despot [[Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus|Isaac Komnenos]].{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 132}} On 1 May 1191, Richard's fleet arrived in the port of [[Limassol]] on Cyprus.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 132}} He ordered Isaac to release the prisoners and the treasure.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 132}} Isaac refused, so Richard landed his troops and took Limassol.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 133–34}}
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| − | | |
| − | [[File:Limassol - Château.jpg|thumb|left|225px|Castle of [[Limassol]], near which Richard's wedding with [[Berengaria of Navarre]] is said to have taken place]]
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| − | Various princes of the Holy Land arrived in Limassol at the same time, in particular [[Guy de Lusignan]]. All declared their support for Richard provided that he support Guy against his rival [[Conrad of Montferrat]].{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 134}} The local barons abandoned Isaac, who considered making peace with Richard, joining him on the crusade, and offering his daughter in marriage to the person named by Richard.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | pp = 134–36}} But Isaac changed his mind and tried to escape. Richard then proceeded to conquer the whole island, his troops being led by Guy de Lusignan. Isaac surrendered and was confined with silver chains, because Richard had promised that he would not place him in irons. By 1 June, Richard had conquered the whole island. His exploit was well publicized and contributed to his reputation; he also derived significant financial gains from the conquest of the island.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 138}} Richard left for Acre on 5 June, with his allies.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 138}} Before his departure, he named two of his Norman generals, [[Richard de Camville]] and [[Robert of Thornham|Robert de Thornham]], as governors of Cyprus.
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| − | | |
| − | While in Limassol, Richard the Lion-Heart married [[Berengaria of Navarre]], first-born daughter of King [[Sancho VI of Navarre]]. The wedding was held on 12 May 1191 at the Chapel of St. George and it was attended by Richard's sister [[Joan of England, Queen of Sicily|Joan]], whom he had brought from [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]]. The marriage was celebrated with great pomp and splendor. Among other grand ceremonies was a double coronation: Richard caused himself to be crowned [[King of Cyprus]], and Berengaria Queen of England and [[List of Cypriot consorts|Queen of Cyprus]] as well.
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| − | | |
| − | [[Image:Le Canarien.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Norman expeditionary ship depicted in the chronicle ''[[Le Canarien]]'' (1490)]]
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| − | | |
| − | The rapid Anglo-Norman conquest proved more important than it seemed. The island occupied a key strategic position on the maritime lanes to the Holy Land, whose occupation by the Christians could not continue without support from the sea.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 137}} Shortly after the conquest, Cyprus was sold to the [[Knights Templar]] and it was subsequently acquired, in 1192, by Guy de Lusignan and became a [[Kingdom of Cyprus|stable feudal kingdom]].{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 137}} It was only in 1489 that the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] acquired full control of the island, which remained a Christian stronghold until the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573)|fall of Famagusta]] in 1571.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 138}}
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| − | | |
| − | ===Canary Islands===
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| − | {{see also|Conquest of the Canary Islands}}
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| − | Between 1402 and 1405, the expedition led by the Norman noble [[Jean de Bethencourt]]<ref name="EB1911Bethencourt">{{EB1911|wstitle=Béthencourt, Jean de|volume=3}}</ref> and the [[Poitevine]] [[Gadifer de la Salle]] conquered the [[Canary Islands|Canarian islands]] of [[Lanzarote]], [[Fuerteventura]] and [[El Hierro]] off the Atlantic coast of Africa. Their troops were gathered in Normandy, Gascony and were later reinforced by [[Castilian people|Castilian]] colonists.
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| − | | |
| − | Bethencourt took the title of [[King of the Canary Islands]], as vassal to [[Henry III of Castile]]. In 1418, Jean's nephew [[Maciot de Bethencourt]] sold the rights to the islands to [[Enrique Pérez de Guzmán, 2nd Count de Niebla]].
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| − | | |
| − | ==Culture==
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| − | | |
| − | ===Norman law===
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| − | {{main|Norman law|Clameur de haro}}
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| − | The [[Custom (law)|customary law]] of [[Normandy]] was developed between the 10th and 13th centuries and survives today through the legal systems of [[Law of Jersey|Jersey]] and [[Guernsey]] in the [[Channel Islands]]. Norman customary law was transcribed in two [[Coutume|customaries]] in [[Latin]] by two judges for use by them and their colleagues:<ref>[http://www.mondes-normands.caen.fr/angleterre/cultures/GB_FR/culture1_7.htm Norman customary law]</ref> These are the ''Très ancien coutumier'' (''Very ancient customary''), authored between 1200 and 1245; and the ''Grand coutumier de Normandie'' (''Great customary of Normandy'', originally ''Summa de legibus Normanniae in curia laïcali''), authored between 1235 and 1245.
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| − | | |
| − | ===Architecture===
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| − | {{Main|Norman architecture}}
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| − | [[File:Tower of London, Traitors Gate.jpg|thumb|A quintessential Norman keep: the [[Tower of London|White Tower]] in [[London]]]]
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| − | | |
| − | Norman architecture typically stands out as a new stage in the architectural history of the regions they subdued. They spread a unique [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque idiom]] to England and Italy, and the [[encastellation]] of these regions with [[keep]]s in their north French style fundamentally altered the military landscape. Their style was characterised by rounded [[arch]]es, particularly over windows and doorways, and massive proportions.
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| − | | |
| − | In England, the period of Norman architecture immediately succeeds that of the [[Anglo-Saxon architecture|Anglo-Saxon]] and precedes the [[Gothic architecture|Early Gothic]]. In southern Italy, the Normans incorporated elements of [[Islamic architecture|Islamic]], [[Lombardic architecture|Lombard]], and [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] building techniques into their own, initiating a unique style known as [[Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture#Norman-Arab-Byzantine architecture|Norman-Arab architecture]] within the [[Kingdom of Sicily]].<ref name="Sicily" />
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| − | | |
| − | ===Visual arts===
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| − | In the visual arts, the Normans did not have the rich and distinctive traditions of the cultures they conquered. However, in the early 11th century the dukes began a programme of church reform, encouraging the [[Cluniac reform]] of monasteries and patronising intellectual pursuits, especially the proliferation of [[scriptoria]] and the reconstitution of a compilation of lost [[illuminated manuscript]]s. The church was utilised by the dukes as a unifying force for their disparate duchy. The chief monasteries taking part in this "renaissance" of Norman art and scholarship were [[Mont-Saint-Michel]], [[Fécamp]], [[Jumièges]], [[Bec-de-Mortagne|Bec]], [[Saint-Ouen, Rouen|Saint-Ouen]], [[Saint-Evroul]], and [[Saint-Wandrille]]. These centres were in contact with the so-called "[[Winchester]] school", which channeled a pure [[Carolingian art]]istic tradition to Normandy. In the final decade of the 11th and first of the 12th century, Normandy experienced a golden age of illustrated manuscripts, but it was brief and the major scriptoria of Normandy ceased to function after the midpoint of the century.
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| − | | |
| − | [[File:Lion, Norman Italy 2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A bronze lion sculpture attributed to an [[Italo-Norman]] artist. Now in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]]]
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| − | | |
| − | The [[French Wars of Religion]] in the 16th century and [[French Revolution]] in the 18th successively destroyed much of what existed in the way of the architectural and artistic remnant of this Norman creativity. The former, with their violence, caused the wanton destruction of many Norman edifices; the latter, with its assault on religion, caused the purposeful destruction of religious objects of any type, and its destabilisation of society resulted in rampant pillaging.
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| − | | |
| − | By far the most famous work of Norman art is the [[Bayeux Tapestry]], which is not a [[tapestry]] but a work of [[embroidery]]. It was commissioned by [[Odo of Bayeux|Odo]], the [[Bishop of Bayeux]] and first [[Earl of Kent]], employing natives from [[Kent]] who were learned in the Nordic traditions imported in the previous half century by the [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danish]] [[Vikings]].
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| − | | |
| − | In Britain, Norman art primarily survives as [[stonework]] or [[metalwork]], such as [[capital (column)|capitals]] and [[baptismal font]]s. In southern Italy, however, Norman artwork survives plentifully in forms strongly influenced by its Greek, Lombard, and Arab forebears. Of the royal regalia preserved in Palermo, the crown is Byzantine in style and the coronation cloak is of Arab craftsmanship with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] inscriptions. Many churches preserve sculptured fonts, capitals, and more importantly mosaics, which were common in Norman Italy and drew heavily on the Greek heritage. Lombard Salerno was a centre of [[ivory]]work in the 11th century and this continued under Norman domination. Finally should be noted the intercourse between French Crusaders traveling to the Holy Land who brought with them French artefacts with which to gift the churches at which they stopped in southern Italy amongst their Norman cousins. For this reason many south Italian churches preserve works from France alongside their native pieces.
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| − | | |
| − | ===Music===
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| − | [[File:David on harp.jpg|thumb|An illuminated manuscript from [[Saint-Evroul]] depicting [[King David]] on the lyre (or harp) in the middle of the back of the initial 'B']]
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| − | Normandy was the site of several important developments in the history of [[classical music]] in the 11th century. [[Fécamp Abbey]] and [[Saint-Evroul Abbey]] were centres of musical production and education. At Fécamp, under two Italian abbots, [[William of Volpiano]] and John of Ravenna, the system of denoting notes by letters was developed and taught. It is still the most common form of pitch representation in English- and German-speaking countries today. Also at Fécamp, the [[Staff (music)|staff]], around which [[neume]]s were oriented, was first developed and taught in the 11th century. Under the German abbot [[Isembard of La Trinité-du-Mont|Isembard]], [[La Trinité-du-Mont]] became a centre of musical composition.
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| − | | |
| − | At Saint Evroul, a tradition of singing had developed and the choir achieved fame in Normandy. Under the Norman abbot [[Robert de Grantmesnil]], several monks of Saint-Evroul fled to southern Italy, where they were patronised by Robert Guiscard and established a Latin monastery at [[Sant'Eufemia Lamezia|Sant'Eufemia]]. There they continued the tradition of singing.
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| − | | |
| − | ==Rulers==
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| − | *[[Dukes of Normandy#Succession of the Dukes of Normandy|List of Dukes of Normandy]]
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| − | *[[Count of Apulia|List of Counts and Dukes of Apulia and Calabria]]
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| − | *[[List of Counts of Aversa]]
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| − | *[[List of Princes of Capua]]
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| − | *[[List of Hypati and Dukes of Gaeta|List of Dukes of Gaeta]]
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| − | *[[Principality of Taranto#Hauteville (Altavilla) dynasty|List of Princes of Taranto]]
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| − | *[[List of monarchs of Sicily]]
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| − | *[[Principality of Antioch#Princes of Antioch, 1098–1268|List of Princes of Antioch]]
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| − | *[[Officers of the Principality of Antioch|List of Officers of the Principality of Antioch]]
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| − | *[[Lusignan dynasty#Second House of Lusignan|Second House of Lusignan]]
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| − | *[[List of English monarchs#Normans|List of English Monarchs]]
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| − | *[[List of Scottish monarchs|List of Scottish Monarchs]]
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| − | | |
| − | ==See also==
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| − | {{Portal |Normandy|Ancient Germanic culture}}
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| − | * [[Kingdom of Africa]] - Italo-Norman garrisons in northern Africa in the 12th century
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| − | * [[Norsemen]]
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| − | * [[Rus' people]]
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| − | | |
| − | ==References==
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| − | {{Reflist |20em}}
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| − | | |
| − | ==Sources==
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| − | {{refbegin|30em}}
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| − | | |
| − | ===Primary===
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| − | * {{Citation | editor-first = Elisabeth | editor-last = van Houts | title = The Normans in Europe | publisher = Manchester Medieval Sources | place = Manchester | year = 2000}}.
| |
| − | * {{Citation | url = http://www.leeds.ac.uk/history/weblearning/MedievalHistoryTextCentre/medievalTexts.htm | title = Medieval History Texts in Translation | publisher = [[University of Leeds]]}}..
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| − | | |
| − | ===Secondary===
| |
| − | * {{Citation | last = Bates | first = David | title = Normandy before 1066 | place = London | year = 1982}}
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| − | * {{Citation | author-link = Ferdinand Chalandon| last = Chalandon | first = Ferdinand | language = French | title = Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sicilie | trans_title = History of the Norman domination in Italy & Sicily | place = Paris | year = 1907}}
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| − | * {{Citation | author-link = Marjorie Chibnall | last = Chibnall | first = Marjorie | title = The Normans | series = The Peoples of Europe | place = Oxford | year = 2000}}.
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| − | * {{Citation | first = M. | last = Chibnall | title = The Debate on the Norman Conquest | year = 1999 | ref=harv}}
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| − | * {{Citation | last = Crouch | first = David | title = The Normans: The History of a Dynasty | publisher = Hambledon | place = London | year = 2003}}.
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| − | * {{Citation | last = Douglas | first = David | title = The Norman Achievement | place = London | year = 1969}}
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| − | * {{Citation | last = Douglas | first = David | title = The Norman Fate | place = London | year = 1976 | author-mask = 3}}
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| − | * {{Citation | first1 = Albert | last1 = Dauzat | first2 = Jean | last2 = Dubois | first3 = Henri | last3 = Mitterand | title = Larousse étymologique | trans_title = Etymological Larousse | publisher = Larousse | year = 1971 | language = French | ref=harv}}
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| − | * {{Citation | last = Flori | first = Jean | year = 1999 | title = Richard Coeur de Lion: le roi-chevalier | trans_title = Richard Lionheart: the king-knight | place = Paris | series = Biographie | publisher = Payot | ISBN = 978-2-228-89272-8 | language = French}}
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| − | * {{Citation | last = Gillingham | first = John | title = The Angevin Empire | place = London | year = 2001}}
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| − | * {{Citation | author1-link = Christopher Gravett| last1 = Gravett | first1 = Christopher | author2-link = David Nicolle | last2 = Nicolle | first2 = David | title = The Normans: Warrior Knights and their Castles | publisher = [[Osprey Publishing]] | place = Oxford | year = 2006}}.
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| − | * {{Citation | last = Green | first = Judith A | title = The Aristocracy of Norman England | place = Cambridge University Press | year = 1997}}
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| − | * {{Citation | last = Gunn | first = Peter | title = Normandy: Landscape with Figures | place = London | publisher = Victor Gollancz | year = 1975}}
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| − | * {{Citation | editor1-last = Harper-Bill | editor1-first = Christopher | editor2-first = Elisabeth | editor2-last = van Houts | title = A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World | publisher = Boydell | year = 2003}}
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| − | * {{Citation | last = Haskins | first = Charles H | title = Norman Institutions | year = 1918}}
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| − | * {{Citation | last = Maitland | first = FW | title = Domesday Book and Beyond: Three Essays in the Early History of England | edition = 2d | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1988}} (feudal Saxons)
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| − | * {{Citation | first = R | last = Mortimer | title = Angevin England 1154–1258 | place = Oxford | year = 1994}}
| |
| − | * {{Citation | last = Muhlbergher | first = Stephen | title = Medieval England}} (Saxon social demotions)
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| − | * {{Citation | author-link = John Julius Norwich | last = Norwich | first = John Julius | title = The Normans in the South 1016–1130 | publisher = Longmans | place = [[London]] | year = 1967}}
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| − | * {{Citation | author-link = John Julius Norwich | last = Norwich | first = John Julius | title = The Kingdom in the Sun 1130–1194 | publisher = Longman | place = [[London]] | year = 1970 | author-mask = 3}}
| |
| − | * {{Citation | editor-last = Robertson | editor-first = AJ | title = Laws of the Kings of England from Edmund to Henry I | publisher = AMS | year = 1974}} (Mudrum fine)
| |
| − | * {{Citation | author-link = Sidney Painter| last = Painter | first = Sidney | title = A History of the Middle Ages 284−1500 | place = [[New York, New York|New York]] | year = 1953}}
| |
| − | * {{Citation | first = Lucas | last = Villegas-Aristizábal | language = Spanish| url = http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=1078914 | title = Algunas notas sobre la participación de Rogelio de Tosny en la Reconquista Ibérica | trans_title = Some notes on the participation of Rogelio de Tosny in the Iberian reconquest | series = Estudios Humanísticos | publisher = Universidad de Leon | volume = III | year = 2004 | pages = 263–74}}
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| − | * {{Citation | first = Lucas | last = Villegas-Aristizábal | year = 2007 | title = Norman and Anglo-Norman Participation in the Iberian Reconquista | type = PhD thesis | publisher = University of Nottingham | author-mask = 3}}
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| − | * {{Citation | first = Lucas | last = Villegas-Aristizábal | title = Roger of Tosny's adventures in the County of Barcelona | series = ''Nottingham Medieval Studies'' | volume = 52 | year = 2008 | pages = 5–16 | author-mask = 3}}
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| − | * {{Citation|first=Lucas|last=Villegas-Aristizábal|title=Anglo-Norman involvement in the conquest of Tortosa and Settlement of Tortosa, 1148-1180|series=''Crusades''|volume=8|year=2009|pages=63–129|author-mask=3|url=http://www.academia.edu/1619392/Anglo-Norman_Intervention_in_the_Conquest_and_Settlement_of_Tortosa_Crusades_8_2009_600_dpi_black_and_white_with_OCR}}
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| − | * {{Citation | last = Thompson | first = Kathleen | title = The Norman Aristocracy before 1066: the Example of the [[Clan Montgomery|Montgomery]]s | journal = Historical Research | volume = 143 | pages = 251–63 |date=October 1987 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-2281.1987.tb00496.x}}
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| − | * {{Citation | last = Villegas-Aristizabal | first = Lucas | chapter = Norman and Anglo-Norman Interventions in the Iberian Wars of Reconquest Before and After the First Crusade| title = Crusading and Pilgrimage in the Norman World | pages = 103–21 |date=July 2015}}
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| − | * {{Citation | last=Vranousi | first=Era A. | title="Κομισκόρτης ο έξ Αρβάνων": Σχόλια εις Χωρίον της Άννης Κομνηνής (Δ' 8,4) |year=1962 | location=Ioannina | publisher=Εταιρείας Ηπειρωτικών Μελετών | language=Greek | ref=harv}}
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| − | {{refend|30em}}
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| − | | |
| − | ==Further reading==
| |
| − | *{{cite book|first=David|last=Bates|title=The Normans and Empire|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, UK|isbn=978-0-19-967441-1}}
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| − | | |
| − | ==External links==
| |
| − | {{NIE Poster|year=1905|Normans}}
| |
| − | * {{Citation | url = http://www.britannica.com/topic/Norman-people | author = Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica | title = Norman people | publisher = ''[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] online''}}.
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| − | * {{Citation | url = http://www.historyinanhour.com/2010/09/18/1066-the-impact-and-legacy-of-the-norman-invasion-of-england/ | first = Kaye | last = Jones | title = 1066: The Impact and Legacy of the Norman Invasion of England | publisher = ''History in an Hour''}}.
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| − | * {{Citation | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/ | first = John | last = Hudson | title = Normans | publisher = ''[[BBC]]''}}.
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| − | * {{Citation | url = http://www.bestofsicily.com/mag/art171.htm/ | first = V. | last = Salerno | title = Sicilian Peoples: The Normans | publisher = ''Best of Sicily Magazine''}}.
| |
| − | * {{Citation | first = Patrick | last = Kelly | url = http://www.albion-swords.com/articles/norman.htm | title = The Normans: their history, arms and tactics}}.
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| − | * {{Citation | title = Regia Anglorum | url = http://www.regia.org/norm1.htm | contribution = Who were the Normans?}}.
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| − | * {{Citation | url = http://www.the-orb.net/orb_done/dudo/dudindex.html | first = Dudo | last = of St. Quentin | title = Gesta Normannorum | publisher = The orb}}, English translation.
| |
| − | * {{Citation | url = http://www.storiaonline.org/normanni/breve.htm | title = Breve Chronicon Northmannicum | language = Latin | publisher = Storia online}}.
| |
| − | * {{Citation | url = http://www.jerseyheritagetrust.org/edu/resources/pdf/normans.pdf | title = The Normans | publisher = Jersey heritage trust | format = PDF}}.
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| − | * {{Citation | url = http://www.mondostoria.it/normanni.html | title = The Normans in Italy | language = Italian | publisher = MondoStoria}}.
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| | | | |
| − | {{Authority control}}
| + | The '''Raevir''' ([[Raev]]: ''Raevir''; [[Common]]: Raevir; [[High Imperial]]: Raevi; Savoyard: Raeve) were an offshoot from the original tribes of Harren, the son of [[Horen]], who rose to signifgance during the continent of Anthos, beneath the Holy Orenian Empire. The raev found unity, after the bloody Elk Wars, under the leadership of of Karol the Raven, Prince of Raev. Following their migration and settlement under Oren, the raevir would rise to great heights in number and in prestige. Eventually, the culture was exposed to those surrounding it and defused into several different subcultures, namely the Siegradic and Adrian identities. |
| | | | |
| − | [[Category:Normans| ]] | + | The House Carrion had a major political, cultural and military impact on [[Humans|Humanity]] and even the rest of the Known World. They heralded their legacy in Orenian Politics as the seemingly simple people of the Kraltan March. However, later as Apostolic Kings of Ruska, the culture found its purpose as the unifiers of humanity, under Exalted Siegmund I, following The Exodus. |
| − | [[Category:Ancient Germanic peoples]] | + | [[Category:Raevir]] |
| − | [[Category:Historical ethnic groups of Europe]] | + | [[Category:Oren]] |
| − | [[Category:North Germanic peoples]] | + | [[Category:Kingdom of Hanseti-Ruska]] |
| − | [[Category:Romance peoples]] | + | [[Category:Culture]] |
| − | [[Category:Viking Age people]] | + | [[Category:Stub]] |
| − | [[Category:Scandinavian people]]
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